List of contributors xi
Foreword xiii
Preface xvii
1 Introduction: what is chemesthesis? 1
Barry G. Green
1.1 A brief history 1
1.2 What is its relevance today? 3
References 5
2 Psychology of chemesthesis why would anyone want to be in pain? 8
Pamela Dalton and Nadia Byrnes
2.1 Introduction and background 8
2.1.1 Individual variation in hedonic response 10
2.2 Physiological differences: maybe they cant feel the burn? 11
2.2.1 Genetics: variability in sensation and diet 11
2.2.2 Anatomy: oral phenotypes and sensation 12
2.3 Effects of exposure on chemesthetic response (social) 13
2.3.1 Desensitization 13
2.3.2 Affective shift: learning to like 15
2.4 Cognitive factors underlying chemesthetic response: state versus trait 17
2.4.1 Personality traits 18
2.4.2 New forms of sensation seeking scales 18
2.4.3 Personality and food choice 22
2.4.4 Cognitive factors underlying chemesthetic response: states 24
2.5 Benefits of liking 25
2.6 Summary 25
References 25
3 Spice and herb extracts with chemesthetic effects 32
Howard Haley and Shane T. McDonald
3.1 Why plants have chemesthetic properties 32
3.2 Hot pungent spices: capsicum species 33
3.3 Other hot pungent spices 34
3.3.1 Cinnamon and cassia 34
3.3.2 Black and white pepper 35
3.3.3 Ginger 35
3.4 Nasal heat spices 36
3.4.1 Mustard 36
3.4.2 Horseradish 36
3.4.3 Wasabi 37
3.5 Cooling spices 37
3.5.1 Mint 37
3.5.2 Eucalyptus 38
3.6 Numbing spices 38
3.6.1 Cloves 38
3.6.2 Wintergreen 39
3.7 Tingling spices 39
3.7.1 Jambu 39
3.7.2 Szechuan pepper 39
3.8 Spice and herb extracts 40
3.8.1 Extracts 40
3.9 Regulatory control of spices and herb extracts with chemesthetic properties 43
3.10 Advantages of spices, essential oils, and oleoresins 44
References 45
4 Molecular mechanisms underlying the role of TRP channels in chemesthesis 48
Yeranddy A. Alpizar, Thomas Voets, and Karel Talavera
4.1 Introduction 48
4.2 TRPM8 49
4.2.1 Mathematical models of TRPM8 function: heated debate over a cool channel 50
4.2.2 Structural determinants of activation of TRPM8 by menthol 57
4.3 TRPV1 61
4.3.1 Crosssensitization between TRPV1 agonists 64
4.4 TRPA1 65
4.5 Concluding remarks 70
Acknowledgments 71
References 71
5 Anatomy and physiology of chemesthesis 77
Cecil J. Saunders and Wayne L. Silver
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Anatomy 77
5.2.1 Oral cavity 78
5.2.2 Nasal cavity 79
5.2.3 Solitary chemosensory cells 80
5.2.4 Other chemosensory epithelial cells 82
5.3 Physiology 83
5.3.1 Reflexes 83
5.3.2 Neurophysiology of chemesthesis 83
5.4 Summary 87
References 87
6 Types of chemesthesis I. Pungency and burn: historical perspectives, word usage, and temporal characteristics 92
John E. Hayes
6.1 Introduction 92
6.1.1 Müller, Myers, and the doctrine of specific nerve energies 92
6.1.2 Columbian Exchange and the quest for spices 93
6.2 Language usage 94
6.3 Differentiation from classical tastes 96
6.4 Sensitization 97
6.5 Acute psychophysical desensitization 98
6.6 Chronic psychophysical desensitization 101
6.7 Summary 102
References 103
7 Types of chemesthesis II: Cooling 106
Steven Pringle
7.1 Consumers and oral perception: where chemesthesis contributes to flavor 106
7.1.1 Taste perception 106
7.2 Molecular structure and physiological cooling 109
7.2.1 Menthol derivatives 110
7.2.2 Nonmenthol derived coolants 120
7.3 Physiological cooling outside of the oral cavity 123
7.4 Usage and consumer perception 126
7.4.1 Physiological coolants in applications beyond cooling 127
7.4.2 Physiological cooling and flavor enhancement 128
7.5 Cooling compounds the next steps 130
References 131
8 Types of chemesthesis III. Tingling and numbing 134
Christopher T. Simons
8.1 Introduction 134
8.1.1 Historical use of tingling and numbing compounds 134
8.2 Tingle mechanisms 136
8.2.1 Twopore K+ channels 136
8.2.2 Carbonic anhydrase/TRPA1 136
8.3 Numbing (anaesthetic) mechanisms 138
8.3.1 Alkylamides and twopore K+ channels 138
8.3.2 Alkylamides and voltagegated Na+ channels 138
8.3.3 Eugenol and voltagegated sodium (Na+) channels 139
8.3.4 Eugenol and voltagegated calcium (Ca2+) channels 139
8.4 Tingle/numbing neural processing 140
8.4.1 Activation of peripheral and central mechanosensory fibers by alkylamides 141
8.4.2 Activation of peripheral and central nociceptive fibers by carbonation 143
8.4.3 Inhibition of peripheral fibers by alkylamides and eugenol 143
8.5 Psychophysical evaluations of tingle 144
8.5.1 Alkylamide tingle: temporal phenomena 144
8.5.2 Alkylamide tingle: mechanosensory sensitivity 145
8.5.3 Alkylamide tingle: effect of temperature 145
8.5.4 CO2 tingle: concentration and tastant effects 146
8.5.5 CO2 tingle: impact of carbonic anhydrase blockers 146
8.5.6 CO2 tingle: impact of bubbles 147
8.5.7 CO2 tingle: selfdesensitization and crossdesensitization by capsaicin 147
8.5.8 CO2 tingle: effect of temperature 148
8.6 Psychophysical evaluations of numbing 148
8.6.1 Alkylamide numbing 148
8.6.2 Eugenol numbing 149
8.7 Summary 149
References 150
9 Interactions in chemesthesis: everything affects everything else 154
Brian Byrne
9.1 Introduction 154
9.2 Coolants 154
9.3 Sweet 157
9.4 Salt 159
9.5 Mouthfeel 160
9.6 Astringency and bitterness 161
9.7 Aroma (retronasal and orthonasal) 162
9.8 Conclusion 163
References 164
10 Some like it hot! Sensory analysis of products containing chemesthetic compounds 166
Cindy Ward
10.1 Introduction 166
10.2 Overview of test approaches for sensory evaluation of chemesthetic compounds in consumer products 169
10.3 The phenomena of sensitization and desensitization 169
10.4 Testing products containing chemesthetic compounds 170
10.5 Discrimination testing with trigeminal compounds 172
10.6 Rating of chemesthetic agent intensity 172
10.7 Dose response 172
10.8 Descriptive analysis of chemesthetic agents containing samples 174
10.9 Alcohol burn case study 176
10.10 Time intensity 178
10.11 Consumer testing with chemesthetic agents 182
10.12 Conclusions 183
Acknowledgments 183
References 183
11 Analytical chemistry of chemesthetic compounds 185
David A. Bolliet
11.1 Introduction 185
11.2 Allyl isothiocyanate 185
11.3 Capsaicinoids 186
11.4 Carbonic acid 190
11.5 Cinnamaldehyde 191
11.6 Eugenol 193
11.7 Gingerols and shogaols 195
11.8 Menthol 197
11.9 Piperine 198
11.10 Sanshools 202
11.11 Spilanthol 204
11.12 Conclusions 205
Abbreviations 206
References 207
12 Chemesthesis and health 227
Richard D. Mattes and MaryJon Ludy
12.1 Introduction 227
12.2 Cultural patterns of intake 228
12.3 Appetite 230
12.3.1 Suppression of appetitive sensations 230
12.3.2 Enhancement of appetitive sensations 234
12.3.3 Decreased energy intake 234
12.3.4 Increased energy intake 235
12.4 Thermogenesis 236
12.4.1 Hot red peppers (capsaicin) 237
12.4.2 Black pepper (piperine) 238
12.4.3 Ginger (gingerols, shogaols, and zingerone) 239
12.4.4 Mustard (allyl isothiocyanate) 240
12.5 Body weight 240
12.6 Individual variability 241
12.7 Conclusion 242
References 243
13 On food and chemesthesis food science and culinary perspectives 250
Christopher R. Loss and Ali Bouzari
13.1 Introduction: putting chemesthesis in the context of flavor 250
13.2 Historical and cultural context for the use of chemesthetic ingredients in foods 251
13.2.1 Cultural connections to chemesthetic agents 251
13.2.2 History of use of chemesthetic agents in prepared foods and food service 252
13.2.3 Chemesthetics and health 252
13.3 Sources of chemesthetic agents in the kitchen and at the product development lab bench 253
13.3.1 Herbs 254
13.3.2 Spices 254
13.3.3 Fruits 255
13.3.4 Vegetables 256
13.3.5 Fermented foods 256
13.3.6 Extracts and dry blends 257
13.3.7 Plant breeding 257
13.4 Culinary techniques and chemesthetic agents 258
13.4.1 Incorporation 258
13.4.2 Impact of culinary technique on intensity 260
13.5 Applications of chemesthetic agents in the food industry 260
13.5.1 Chemesthetic agents in global cuisines 260
13.5.2 Creating craveable culinary experiences with chemesthetic agents 262
13.5.3 Food safety and preservation 263
13.5.4 Modern applications of chemesthetic agents in fine dining 263
References 265
14 Overview of chemesthesis with a look to the future 268
E. Carstens
14.1 Introduction 268
14.2 Peripheral innervation of oral, ocular, and nasal mucosa and skin 269
14.3 TRPV1 270
14.4 TRPA1 273
14.5 TRPV3, TRPV4, and warming 274
14.6 TRPM8 and cold 275
14.7 Tingle 276
14.8 NaCl 277
14.9 Itch 277
14.10 Interactions between chemesthesis and taste 278
14.11 Summary and conclusions 279
References 279
Index 286
